Anatomy And Physiology Of Ckd - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 9 Words: 2763 Downloads: 7 Date added: 2017/09/25 Category Advertising Essay Type Narrative essay Topics: Anatomy Essay Did you like this example? ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY Chronic Kidney Disease Cardiovascular System The cardiovascular system is sometimes called the circulatory system. It consists of the heart, which is a muscular pumping device, and a closed system of vessels called arteries, veins, and capillaries. As the name implies, blood contained in the circulatory system is pumped by the heart around a closed circuit of vessels as it passes again and again through the various circulations of the body. The Heart * The heart is enclosed by a sac known as the pericardium. There are three layers of tissues that form the heart wall. The outer layer of the heart wall is the epicardium, the middle layer is the myocardium, and the inner layer is the endocardium. The internal cavity of the heart is divided into four chambers: * Right atrium * Right ventricle * Left atrium * Left ventricle * The two atria are thin-walled chambers that receive blood from the veins. The two ventricles are thick-walled chambers that forcefu lly pump blood out of the heart. Differences in thickness of the heart chamber walls are due to variations in the amount of myocardium present, which reflects the amount of force each chamber is required to generate. The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from systemic veins; the left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the pulmonary veins. Valves of the Heart Pumps need a set of valves to keep the fluid flowing in one direction and the heart is no exception. The heart has two types of valves that keep the blood flowing in the correct direction. The valves between the atria and ventricles are called atrioventricular valves (also called cuspid valves), while those at the bases of the large vessels leaving the ventricles are called semilunar valves. The right atrioventricular valve is the tricuspid valve. The left atrioventricular valve is the bicuspid, or mitral, valve. The valve between the right ventricle and pulmonary trunk is the pulmonary semilunar valve. The valve between the left ventricle and the aorta is the aortic semilunar valve. When the ventricles contract, atrioventricular valves close to prevent blood from flowing back into the atria. When the ventricles relax, semilunar valves close to prevent blood from flowing back into the ventricles. Pathway of Blood through the Heart While it is convenient to describe the flow of blood through the right side of the heart and then through the left side, it is important to realize that both atria contract at the same time and both ventricles contract at the same time. The heart works as two pumps, one on the right and one on the left, working simultaneously. Blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle, and then is pumped to the lungs to receive oxygen. From the lungs, the blood flows to the left atrium, then to the left ventricle. From there it is pumped to the systemic circulation. Blood Supply to the Myocardium The myocardium of the heart wall is a working muscle that needs a continuous supply of oxygen and nutrients to function with efficiency. For this reason, cardiac muscle has an extensive network of blood vessels to bring oxygen to the contracting cells and to remove waste products. The right and left coronary arteries, branches of the ascending aorta, supply blood to the walls of the myocardium. After blood passes through the capillaries in the myocardium, it enters a system of cardiac (coronary) veins. Most of the cardiac veins drain into the coronary sinus, which opens into the right atrium. Blood Vessels Blood vessels are the channels or conduits through which blood is distributed to body tissues. The vessels make up two closed systems of tubes that begin and end at the heart. One system, the pulmonary vessels, transports blood from the right ventricle to the lungs and back to the left atrium. The other system, the systemic vessels, carries blood from the left ventricle to the tissues in all parts of the body and then returns the blood to t he right atrium. Based on their structure and function, blood vessels are classified as either arteries, capillaries, or veins. Arteries Arteries carry blood away from the heart. Pulmonary arteries transport blood that has a low oxygen content from the right ventricle to the lungs. Systemic arteries transport oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to the body tissues. Blood is pumped from the ventricles into large elastic arteries that branch repeatedly into smaller and smaller arteries until the branching results in microscopic arteries called arterioles. The arterioles play a key role in regulating blood flow into the tissue capillaries. About 10 percent of the total blood volume is in the systemic arterial system at any given time. The wall of an artery consists of three layers. The innermost layer, the tunica intima (or just intima), contains simple squamous epithelium, basement membrane and connective tissues. The epithelium is in direct contact with the blood flow. The middle layer, the tunica media, is primarily smooth muscle and is usually the thickest layer. It not only provides support for the vessel but also changes vessel diameter to regulate blood flow and blood pressure. The outermost layer, which attaches the vessel to the surrounding tissue, is the tunica externa or tunica adventitia. This layer is connective tissue with varying amounts of elastic and collagenous fibers. The connective tissue in this layer is quite dense where it is adjacent to the tunic media, but it changes to loose connective tissue near the periphery of the vesse Veins Veins carry blood toward the heart. After blood passes through the capillaries, it enters the smallest veins, called venules. From the venules, it flows into progressively larger and larger veins until it reaches the heart. In the pulmonary circuit, the pulmonary veins transport blood from the lungs to the left atrium of the heart. This blood has a high oxygen content because it has just been oxyge nated in the lungs. Systemic veins transport blood from the body tissue to the right atrium of the heart. This blood has a reduced oxygen content because the oxygen has been used for metabolic activities in the tissue cells. The walls of veins have the same three layers as the arteries. Although all the layers are present, there is less smooth muscle and connective tissue. This makes the walls of veins thinner than those of arteries, which is related to the fact that blood in the veins has less pressure than in the arteries. Because the walls of the veins are thinner and less rigid than arteries, veins can hold more blood. Almost 70 percent of the total blood volume is in the veins at any given time. Medium and large veins have venous valves, similar to the semilunar valves associated with the heart, that help keep the blood flowing toward the heart. Venous valves are especially important in the arms and legs, where they prevent the backflow of blood in response to the pull of gravity. Capillaries Capillaries, the smallest and most numerous of the blood vessels, form the connection between the vessels that carry blood away from the heart (arteries) and the vessels that return blood to the heart (veins). The primary function of capillaries is the exchange of materials between the blood and tissue cells. Capillary distribution varies with the metabolic activity of body tissues. Tissues such as skeletal muscle, liver, and kidney have extensive capillary networks because they are metabolically active and require an abundant supply of oxygen and nutrients. Other tissues, such as connective tissue, have a less abundant supply of capillaries. The epidermis of the skin and the lens and cornea of the eye completely lack a capillary network. About 5 percent of the total blood volume is in the systemic capillaries at any given time. Another 10 percent is in the lungs. Smooth muscle cells in the arterioles where they branch to form capillaries regulate blood f low from the arterioles into the capillaries. Role of the Capillaries In addition to forming the connection between the arteries and veins, capillaries have a vital role in the exchange of gases, nutrients, and metabolic waste products between the blood and the tissue cells. Substances pass through the capillaries wall by diffusion, filtration, and osmosis. Oxygen and carbon dioxide move across the capillary wall by diffusion. Fluid movement across a capillary wall is determined by a combination of hydrostatic and osmotic pressure. The net result of the capillary microcirculation created by hydrostatic and osmotic pressure is that substances leave the blood at one end of the capillary and return at the other end. Urinary System The principal function of the urinary system is to maintain the volume and composition of body fluids within normal limits. One aspect of this function is to rid the body of waste products that accumulate as a result of cellular metabolism. Other aspect s of its function include regulating the concentrations of various electrolytes in the body fluids and maintaining normal pH of the blood. In addition to maintaining fluid homeostasis in the body, the urinary system controls red blood cell production by secreting the hormone erythropoietin. The urinary system also plays a role in maintaining normal blood pressure by secreting the enzyme renin. The urinary system consists of the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra. The kidneys form the urine and account for the other functions attributed to the urinary system. The ureters carry the urine away from kidneys to the urinary bladder, which is a temporary reservoir for the urine. The urethra is a tubular structure that carries the urine from the urinary bladder to the outside. Kidneys The kidneys are the primary organs of the urinary system. The kidneys are the organs that filter the blood, remove the wastes, and excrete the wastes in the urine. They are the organs that perfo rm the functions of the urinary system. The other components are accessory structures to eliminate the urine from the body. The paired kidneys are located between the twelfth thoracic and third lumbar vertebrae, one on each side of the vertebral column. The right kidney usually is slightly lower than the left because the liver displaces it downward. The kidneys protected by the lower ribs, lie in shallow depressions against the posterior abdominal wall and behind the parietal peritoneum. This means they are retroperitoneal. Each kidney is held in place by connective tissue, called renal fascia, and is surrounded by a thick layer of adipose tissue, called perirenal fat, which helps to protect it. A tough, fibrous, connective tissue renal capsule closely envelopes each kidney and provides support for the soft tissue that is inside. In the adult, each kidney is approximately 3 cm thick, 6 cm wide, and 12 cm long. It is roughly bean-shaped with an indentation, called the hilum, on the medial side. The hilum leads to a large cavity, called the renal sinus, within the kidney. The ureter and renal vein leave the kidney, and the renal artery enters the kidney at the hilum. The outer, reddish region, next to the capsule, is the renal cortex. This surrounds a darker reddish-brown region called the renal medulla. The renal medulla consists of a series of renal pyramids, which appear striated because they contain straight tubular structures and blood vessels. The wide bases of the pyramids are adjacent to the cortex and the pointed ends, called renal papillae, are directed toward the center of the kidney. Portions of the renal cortex extend into the spaces between adjacent pyramids to form renal columns. The cortex and medulla make up the parenchyma, or functional tissue, of the kidney. The central region of the kidney contains the renal pelvis, which is located in the renal sinus and is continuous with the ureter. The renal pelvis is a large cavity that colle cts the urine as it is produced. The periphery of the renal pelvis is interrupted by cuplike projections called calyces. A minor calyx surrounds the renal papillae of each pyramid and collects urine from that pyramid. Several minor calyces converge to form a major calyx. From the major calyces the urine flows into the renal pelvis and from there into the ureter. Each kidney contains over a million functional units, called nephrons, in the parenchyma (cortex and medulla). A nephron has two parts: a renal corpuscle and a renal tubule. The renal corpuscle consists of a cluster of capillaries, called the glomerulus, surrounded by a double-layered epithelial cup, called the glomerular capsule. An afferent arteriole leads into the renal corpuscle and an efferent arteriole leaves the renal corpuscle. Urine passes from the nephrons into collecting ducts then into the minor calyces. The juxtaglomerular apparatus, which monitors blood pressure and secretes renin, is formed from modified ce lls in the afferent arteriole and the ascending limb of the nephron loop. Ureter Each ureter is a small tube, about 25 cm long, that carries urine from the renal pelvis to the urinary bladder. It descends from the renal pelvis, along the posterior abdominal wall, behind the parietal peritoneum, and enters the urinary bladder on the posterior inferior surface. The wall of the ureter consists of three layers. The outer layer, the fibrous coat, is a supporting layer of fibrous connective tissue. The middle layer, the muscular coat, consists of inner circular and outer longitudinal smooth muscle. The main function of this layer is peristalsis to propel the urine. The inner layer, the mucosa, is transitional epithelium that is continuous with the lining of the renal pelvis and the urinary bladder. This layer secretes mucus which coats and protects the surface of the cells. Urinary Bladder The urinary bladder is a temporary storage reservoir for urine. It is located in the pelvic ca vity, posterior to the symphysis pubis, and below the parietal peritoneum. The size and shape of the urinary bladder varies with the amount of urine it contains and with pressure it receives from surrounding organs. The inner lining of the urinary bladder is a mucous membrane of transitional epithelium that is continuous with that in the ureters. When the bladder is empty, the mucosa has numerous folds called rugae. The rugae and transitional epithelium allow the bladder to expand as it fills. The second layer in the walls is the submucosa that supports the mucous membrane. It is composed of connective tissue with elastic fibers. The next layer is the muscularis, which is composed of smooth muscle. The smooth muscle fibers are interwoven in all directions and collectively these are called the detrusor muscle. Contraction of this muscle expels urine from the bladder. On the superior surface, the outer layer of the bladder wall is parietal peritoneum. In all other regions, the o uter layer is fibrous connective tissue. There is a triangular area, called the trigone, formed by three openings in the floor of the urinary bladder. Two of the openings are from the ureters and form the base of the trigone. Small flaps of mucosa cover these openings and act as valves that allow urine to enter the bladder but prevent it from backing up from the bladder into the ureters. The third opening, at the apex of the trigone, is the opening into the urethra. A band of the detrusor muscle encircles this opening to form the internal urethral sphincter. Urethra The final passageway for the flow of urine is the urethra, a thin-walled tube that conveys urine from the floor of the urinary bladder to the outside. The opening to the outside is the external urethral orifice. The mucosal lining of the urethra is transitional epithelium. The wall also contains smooth muscle fibers and is supported by connective tissue. The internal urethral sphincter surrounds the beginning of th e urethra, where it leaves the urinary bladder. This sphincter is smooth (involuntary) muscle. Another sphincter, the external urethral sphincter, is skeletal (voluntary) muscle and encircles the urethra where it goes through the pelvic floor. These two sphincters control the flow of urine through the urethra. In females, the urethra is short, only 3 to 4 cm (about 1. 5 inches) long. The external urethral orifice opens to the outside just anterior to the opening for the vagina. In males, the urethra is much longer, about 20 cm (7 to 8 inches) in length, and transports both urine and semen. The first part, next to the urinary bladder, passes through the prostate gland and is called the prostatic urethra. The second part, a short region that penetrates the pelvic floor and enters the penis, is called the membranous urethra. The third part, the spongy urethra, is the longest region. This portion of the urethra extends the entire length of the penis, and the external urethral orifice opens to the outside at the tip of the penis. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Anatomy And Physiology Of Ckd" essay for you Create order

The United States 2003 Invasion Of Iraq - 1374 Words

THE THEORYOF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS THAT BEST EXPLAINS THE UNITED STATES’ 2003 INVASION OF IRAQ Name: University: Instructor: Date: Introduction The war in Iraq is noted to have been initiated by the American’s efforts to fight terrorism. At the time, the British and the Americans had affirmed that Saddam Hussein, the then Iraq’s leader was associated with terrorism that had internationalized. Moreover, they had established that Saddam Hussein had the ability to use massive destruction weapons. President Bush and Tony Blair, the British Prime Minister, are also found the need to deliver Iraq people from the bad leadership of Saddam Hussein and support them to build a democratic form of government. However, according to the critics, America’s reason to invade Iraq was found to match realism and imperialism theories especially because; Iraq was rich in oil resources. 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Impact of the Financial Crisis on Financial Institutions and Businesse

Questions: 1. Subprime mortgage crisis is an example of a financial crisis that affected global markets worldwide. Give another example of a financial crisis in your discussions below.à ¢Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã‚  Discuss the possible causes of the financial crisis. à ¢Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã‚  Discuss the impact of the financial crisis on financial institutions and businesses elsewhere including your own country.à ¢Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã‚  Explain how the financial crisis affected the economies of different countries. 2. NAB Ltd current share price is $30 and it has just paid a $1.50 dividend. Dividends of NAB are expected to grow at the rate of 5% per year. A. What is an estimated return that shareholders of NAB expect to earn?B. NAB Ltd also has preference share outstanding that pays fixed dividend of $2.30 per share. If preference stock is currently priced at $25, what is the return that preference share holders expect to earn?C. Five years ago NAB Ltd issued 15 year bond with face value of $1000 and coupon rate of 9%. The pr ice of these bonds is currently is $950. What is NABs pre-tax and after-tax cost of debt?D. NAB Ltd has 5000,000 ordinary shares outstanding and 1,500,000 preference shares outstanding, and its equity has a total book value of $50,000,000. Its liability has a book value of $25,000,000. If NABs ordinary and preference shares are priced as in parts (A) and (B) above, what is the market value of NABs assets?E. What is weighted average cost of capital (WACC) F. If NABs liability increase by 100%. How the increase in liability will affect WACC of NAB. Explain. Answers: Introduction A circumstance in which the estimation of the FIs i.e. financial institutions or resources drops quickly. A financial crisis is frequently connected with a frenzy or a run on the banks, in which financial specialists auction resources or withdraw cash from bank accounts with the desire that the estimation of those advantages will drop in the event that they stay at a financial organization. Causes Over excess leverage is at the point of convergence of financial crisis, by definition. The leverage goes past the reports of accounting. The leverage is linked inside the components of the balance sheet, for instance, subsidiaries. Moreover unsafe concealed leverage is embedded in the securities that are organized. There is no direct leverage accounting, so obliging it is confounding and past the skill of authorities to profitably compose into law, and beyond the limit of controllers to regulate as understood. The fundamental game plan is to force in a general sense higher capital necessities, purposeful needless excess, seeing and enduring the results, which are far less destructive than the financial crisis. By then let the business understand how to upgrade accounting and straightforwardness that will enable more empowerment, yet still sufficient, necessities of the capital. Like power, liquidity dumbfounds i.e. crediting long and borrowing short must be altogether diminished. Th e Basel III proportions for liquidity are a discriminating battle to watch. In not a solitary profession, there are such express conflicts of endured investment (Boorman, 2009). Undoubtedly the administration business of the advantage inside store is frightened, as are various "out-dated" lenders. Driving the budgetary business to pick a line of business and customer sort to serve will handle the issue of clash while upgrading system adaptability as a result of the extended differences of firms. The expense strategy has a discriminating impact on the stream and expense of capital and the assessment code as it impacts the needs of money. There is a prerequisite of an essentially more dynamic assessment additions identified with duty that has the effect of enabling bona fide long haul venture over transient theory. The valuable treatment of duty as per the conveyed venture is absurd. The cash related system has extended. The consequences of this specific point of view of perspective r un wide and significant as exemplified by the example of the stock exchanges. In case the trades were grasped to be, and spoken to as a cabin, there is simply no possibility of a reasonable basic culture that would help high repeat of exchanging which benefits a couple inside the cost of diminished system versatility. Impacts The most noticeably bad effect of financial crisis on Australia is examined inside this part. The clearest impact of the monetary emergency inside the household units in Australia was the incomprehensible lessening in the equity prices, which diminished the plenitude of the families in Australia by very nearly 10% by March 2009. Then again, taking after the trough in businesses of value in March 2009, the adjacent business had recovered an expansive allotment of its rot before the end of November 2009. The Australian dollar furthermore decayed rapidly and sizeably as with the increment in value, declining by in overabundance of 30% from July 2009 onwards. Around the time of the Lehman bankruptcy, conditions in the remote trade business were particularly illiquid, affecting the Reserve Bank of Australia (RBA) to mediate in the business segment to update liquidity. Since March 2009, as explanations behind alert diminished, the Australian dollar for the most part recovered, reflecting the relative nature of the Australian economy. The credit and currency market inside Australia have moreover wound up being stronger than in various diverse countries, obliging essentially less intervention by the Reserve bank of Australia than happened in various distinctive countries. In tremendous part this reflected the soundness of the Australian keeping cash structure(lannuzzi, 2010) . The Australian banks had practically no possessions of the "harmful" securities that truly impacted other overall banks. The soundness of the keeping money framework inside Australia supported the adequateness of the financial and fiscal reaction, particularly by allowing a huge piece of the generous encouraging in monetary plan to be passed through to premium rates on credits to the family units and glaring contrast, a unique distinction to the conclusion in other created economies. An examination of the result of amazing financial crisis shows significant and persevering results at the costs of advantages, livelihood and yield. The ascent in unemployment and costs of lodging declines reach out for five and six years, separately. The retreats are for all intents and purpose always joined by colossal augmentations in an obligation for government. The crises unfavourably influence sovereign unwavering quality, as reflected in higher risk premium. The overall nature of the present crisis will make it altogether more troublesome for a few countries to create out through extended fares. The log jam development is upgraded in product markets of the world, as various creating markets face steep abatements in their terms of trade. In case true samples hold, showing an association obligation emergencies and keeping money for the sovereign defaults or restructurings in creating markets will most likely touch base at an end, particularly if the recovery plan on the planet's greatest economies is deferred(Chong, 2010). 2. A. 1.5/estimated return-0.05 = 30 1.5 = 30x estimated return 1.5 3 = 30x estimated return Estimated return =3/30 = 0.1 = 10% B. 2.5/preference return-0.05 = 25 2.5 = 25 x preference return -1.25 2.5+1.25 = 25x preference return 25x preference return = 3.75 Preference return = 3.75/25 Preference return = 0.15 = 15% C. Coupon = 0.09 x 1000 = $90 per year. 950 = (90 / r) [1-(1+r) ^ (-15)]+ [1000/ (1+r)^15] 0.096 x (0.7) =0.0672= 6.72% D. Liabilities = $25000000 C.S = 30x5000, 000 = 150000000 P.S = 25 x 1500000 = 37500000 TMV of NABs assets = $212500000 E. Cost of equity = 1.575/30 + 5 per cent = 10.35% Weighted Average Cost of Capital = ((187500000/187500000) +25000000 * 0.1025) + ((25000000/187500000+25000000 * 0.0672)) Weighted Average Cost Of Capital = 9.8% F. With the increase in liability by 100%, the total liabilities equal 2x25000000 = $50000000 Weighted average cost of capital = ((187500000/187500000) +50000000 x 0.1025) + ((50000000/187500000+50000000 x 0.0672)) WACC = 9.5% Bibliography Boorman, J., 2011. The Current Financial Crisis: Its Origins, Its Impact, and the Needed Policy Response. Global Journal Of Emerging Market Economies, 1(2), pp. 127-135. Chong, J. K. S., 2010. Anticipating and dealing with financial crisis. Management Decision, 36(10), pp. 637-640. lannuzzi, E., 2010. Global financial crisis: causes and perspectives. EuroMed Journal of Business, pp. 279-297.